The chronology provides a brief review of events leading up to open hostilities, and some insight in the diplomatic and political considerations that governed USAF's involvement in this very politicized war. Also included is the evolution of the command structure to accommodate the military scenario and the emergence of the Coveys.

What is not included is actuarial data, which would further emphasize the impressive involvement and varied activities of the Coveys; these can be reviewed in other official records, cited where possible. However, by reading the personal narratives documenting the combat experiences of the individual Coveys, one is presented with a summary of insights providing further testimony to the disciplined professionalism of Covey FACs in a much more eloquent and impressive manner than that of mission numbers and other operational data.

Following the German conquest of France during WWII, Japan, an Axis ally, entered Indochina intending to absorb the French Asian Colonies into its empire. Towards the end of WWII, U.S. agents were parachuted into Vietnam and made contact with the local insurgent forces. The insurgents were a collection of communist and non-communist elements all with the same commitment ... an independent Vietnam. The insurgents were known as the Viet Minh ... their leader was Ho Chi Minh.

Immediately following the Japanese surrender ending WWII, President Truman issued General Order 1, which outlined procedures for disarming Japanese forces in the Far East. That order designated the 16th parallel as a demarcation line between zones of control in Indochina. The Chinese Nationalist troops would disarm the Japanese north of that line; south of the line British were to disarm the Japanese.

On 9 Sep 45, 200,000 Chinese Nationalist troops arrived in Hanoi to disarm the Japanese. Upon arrival, they found that the Viet Minh had taken control of the northern region. On 2 Sep 45, Ho Chi Minh issued a Declaration of Independence establishing The Democratic Republic of Vietnam. The new government had replaced all French road signs with Vietnamese ones as evidence of intent to exercise sovereignty over the territory.

The British, aided by a small contingent of French soldiers, completed disarming the Japanese in the south. On 23 Sept, the French with British assistance, re-assumed control of Saigon. Negotiations soon began with the Chinese Nationalists to permit French military forces to move into the northern part of Vietnam.

Through the rest of the decade, intense negotiations were initiated between France and the Viet Minh representatives to resolve the issue of the French presence in Indochina. These negotiations repeatedly broke down over the issue of Vietnamese independence. Heightened tensions were aggravated by the growing support of Viet Minh independence by the USSR and the new Peoples Republic of China, who as a show of support amassed troops on the border with NVN. During this same time, guerilla warfare was becoming more prevalent in the south. Soon, Viet Minh forces under the command of Gen. Vo Nguyen Giap, launched a series of attacks on French military posts and truck convoys, inflicting heavy casualties and provoking general hostilities.

This period ended Phase 1, as the division between communist and anti-communist began to emerge.

the threat of Communist aggression in Indochina is only one phase of anticipated Communist plans to seize all of Southeast Asia.

In National Security Council Memorandum 64, dated 27 Feb 50, it stated:

"all practical measures be taken to prevent further Communist expansions in Southeast Asia. The neighboring countries of Thailand and Burma could be expected to fall under Communist domination if Indochina were controlled by a Communist-dominated government. The balance of Southeast Asia would be in grave hazard."

On 1 May 50, President Truman approved the initial allotment of $10 million dollars for French Indochina. These actions signaled the beginning of Phase 2 of Vietnam's struggle for independence. The paramount issue now became clear ... it was Communist versus Anti-communist.

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Phase 1 saw the formation of a new state ... Vietnam ... with Former Emperor Boa Dai as head of the government ... the new state was immediately recognized by the United States. The U.S. identified the threat, adopted the "Domino Theory", and started to provide financial aid to France. Recognition of the new state of Vietnam can be seen as the defacto basis for two Vietnams ... North and South. Only the boundary line between the two ... originally set at the 16th parallel by Truman's GO 1 immediately following the end of WWII ... was yet to be arbitrated. The U.S. was committed.

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Several months prior to the crisis created by the battle of Dien Bien Phu, several hundred USAF mechanics were sent to SEA to keep U.S.-loan aircraft mission capable. During this same period, the French requested and received USAF assistance in flying troop reinforcements from North Africa to SEA to support the deteriorating military situation at Dien Bien Phu. Just prior to the fall of Dien Bien Phu, President Eisenhower and his advisors discussed U.S. intervention by USAF and Navy strike aircraft, and USAF B-29s to relieve the enemy pressure on the French garrison. Contingency plans were drawn up. However, several key congressional members balked at intervention unless the British agreed to participate. When Prime Minister Winston Churchill declined, the President dropped the idea of an air strike. Within a week, the French were overwhelmed by Viet Minh troops under General Giap.

The conferees recognized the Independence of Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos. They further agreed that Vietnam would be temporarily divided at the 17th parallel. National elections would be held on July 26 to unify the country. All forces were withdrawn and the French presence would be removed over several years. The protocols prohibited reinforcement or re-equipping local military forces with improved armaments. The protocols did not require the US MAAG, consisting of 342 men, to withdraw from SVN. The agreement also established an International Control Commission (ICC) to supervise the various agreements.

In October 1954, with Ho Chi Minh still the principal actor, and nothing else new or different, the Democratic Government of Vietnam once more claimed to be the legitimate government of Vietnam. In the south, the State of Vietnam, now under the leadership of President Ngo Dinh Diem, proclaimed his state a Republic and was immediately recognized by President Eisenhower.

... a carefully orchestrated bombing attack against North Vietnam aimed primarily at infiltration and other military targets.

In November of that year, Ambassador Taylor was called to Washington to discuss with the President and his advisors future courses of action relative to the war in Vietnam. Among other agreements was the initiation of a graduated military response against the NVN lines of communications (LOCs). On 2 Dec 64 President Johnson approved a program of controlled air strikes against the NVN's LOC's in Laos. In the latter part of December, Barrel Roll operations got underway. In April 1965, Steel Tiger operations began, followed a short time later by Tiger Hound.

In April 1966, General Westmoreland was given the responsibility for armed reconnaissance in, and the intelligence analysis of, the "extended battlefield" area of Route Package 1, above the DMZ. (see map)

In Saigon, the 2nd Air Division coordinated all U.S. air units involved in Steel Tiger. To meet the Thai political requirements, the 2nd AD's Deputy Air Commander was located in that country. In April 66, the Division was replaced by the 7th Air Force ... the Division Commander became the Deputy Commander 7th/13th Air Force ... reporting to the 7th AF on operational matters and to the 13th AF on administrative and logistic matters. (see chart)

To accommodate the ever-expanding structure and to improve its efficiency, Air Force planners began to build a Southeast Asia Integrated Tactical Air Control System (SEAITACS). SEAITACS took over two years to be implemented. Force restructuring and assignments were in a state of flux during that two-year phase-in period. Included in SEAITACS, operational, command, communications, and support requirements were identified for the Tiger Hound program. Tiger Hound required more resources than the AF had employed in Laos to that time. (see map)

By late 1967, logistics caught up with operational requirements, resulting in increased efficiency in force application. SEAITACS also included provisions for a command and control structure that formed the basis for the Air War in Laos. The plan called for the establishment of an Airborne Battlefield Command and Control system. The Battlefield System called for an Air Battlefield Command and Control Center (ABCCC) ... the first was a SC-47, later replaced by the C-130 ... the ABCCC controlled all air operations within the strike area. AF O-1s, and A-1Es, along with Royal Laotian T-28s served as FACs. RF-101s and RF-4Cs were employed for target detection; UC-123s were used to defoliate jungle growth along the roads and trails; C-130 Flareships were also included as part of the system. Strike aircraft assigned were B-57s, F-100s, F-105s, and AC-47 Gunships. Substantial air assets from the Army, Navy, and Marines joined in the operation.

Since its activation, the 20th TASS was based at Danang AB, SVN. To meet its varied mission requirements, it established a number of forward operation sites. Air Liaison Officers (ALO) were assigned to in-country operations, working with U.S. and Allied units in I Corps. The 20th TASS FACs flew with call-signs other than Covey. (See chart)

The 19th TASS, based at NKP, Thailand, was assigned to provide FAC coverage for Zone 3; these FACs were given the call-sign of NAIL (previous call-sign was Gombey.)

The Raven FACs provided coverage for Zone 4. (see map)

The command structure and mission requirements remained the same for the next several years. Additional mission requirements were the support of Prairie Fire and Igloo White. At times, Covey FACs were also tasked to fly into NVN (the old Tally Ho area), to drop survival canisters to downed aircrews who were evading the enemy.

The FANs flew in the O-2, which enabled them to use the starlight scope out the right window. When the OV-10 entered the Covey inventory, the O-2s flew the bulk of the night missions. Later, technological advances in night vision devices enabled specially-equipped OV-10s to assume the night role as the O-2s were phased out of the Covey inventory.

Critical to the entire operation was the exact placement of the sensors. The delivery aircraft was the F-4, and delivery procedures to the drop zone required the F-4 to come in very low and fast; the approach over a jungle area provided the pilot with few visually identifiable points to ensure exact placement of the sensors.

To make this operation more efficient, Covey FACs were incorporated as part of the sensor placement. The Coveys marked the beginning of the proposed sensor location area, and then marked the ending of the drop area. The F-4, using the WP marks, lined up on both smoke marks and dropped the sensors between the marks; the area was photographed, and the sensor placement and location confirmed. The use of Covey FACs in this operation solved a lot of problems for Igloo White.

As Prairie Fire grew in numbers and mission scope, a designated Covey FAC, already familiar with the operational area, was assigned to each team. Each Prairie Fire Covey was checked out in working with a team, and flew with a Covey Rider. The Covey Rider was a member of SOG and a veteran of numerous Prairie Fire missions. He acted as liaison with the team on the ground and assisted the FAC in a variety of ways; the FAC and Rider quickly formed a complementary team. The Prairie Fire teams came to depend on the FAC for his ingenuity, composure, and when necessary, sheer determination.

In Military Region 1, the invasion force rolled across the DMZ, while others penetrated into MRII from Laos. All were supported by a considerable number of tanks and other armored vehicles. Meanwhile, another force invaded from Cambodia into Bihn Long and Tay Nimh provinces northwest of Saigon.

With Hanoi's forces ensconced inside South Vietnam below the DMZ, President Nixon launched Operation Linebacker. For the first time, the U.S. imposed a naval blockade and mined the waters of Haiphong and other North Vietnamese ports. Air strikes above the 20th parallel were renewed. By June, l972, the North Vietnamese offensive had stalled outside of Hue. (see map)

In January 1973, the Coveys flew their last missions in Southeast Asia.

In April 1975, Saigon fell.